The immune microenvironment and progression of immunotherapy and combination therapeutic strategies for hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) accounts for 75%-85% of all primary liver cancers and is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. China accounts for almost half of the global incidence and deaths of HCC. The poor response of chemotherapeutics and targeted drugs may be due to the drug resistance, heterogeneity of HCC, severe chronic liver damage and cirrhosis. Restoration of the liver microenvironment changes caused by chronic injury is crucial. Immunotherapy recently seems to show promise for the treatment of HCC induced by inflammatory injury. However, the unique liver immune system and resident immune tolerance state also pose a challenge for HCC immunotherapy. Different combinations of strategies have been developed for enhancement of HCC treatment. Here, we will discuss the immune microenvironment and progression of immunotherapy and combination therapeutic strategies for HCC.