Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles: Recent advances in isolation technologies and neurodegenerative applications

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) represent a diverse category of chronic, progressively worsening conditions marked by the permanent deterioration of nerve cells and their interconnected networks, resulting in significant deficits in mental, physical, and behavioral capacities. Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PENs) are gaining recognition as distinctive bioactive delivery systems with revolutionary applications in neurological disorders. Their natural compatibility with biological systems, minimal immune reactivity, ability to penetrate various physiological obstacles, particularly the cerebral vascular barrier, along with their diverse molecular composition (containing therapeutic lipids, regulatory proteins, non-coding genetic material, and plant-derived compounds) enable PENs to exhibit multifaceted therapeutic benefits. These include regulation of neural inflammation, reduction of cellular oxidative damage, and promotion of nerve cell stability and regeneration. This article presents an exhaustive and analytical overview of contemporary developments in PENs investigations, focusing particularly on standardization. This study presents comprehensive approaches for isolating, purifying with high efficiency, and conducting diverse structural and functional analyses. Additionally, we conduct thorough investigations into vesicular molecular processes, including cell-to-cell interactions and signaling pathways involving transported molecules, which contribute to the neuroprotective effects of PENs. Overall, this research seeks to address existing information deficiencies and establish a solid theoretical framework for developing and clinically implementing PENs-derived treatments for neurodegenerative conditions.