Advancing electrode durability: Failure mechanism, evaluation criteria, and engineering strategies for titanium-substrate metal oxide anodes

Titanium-based metal oxide electrodes, commonly referred to as dimensionally stable anodes (DSA), have gained widespread application across diverse electrochemical processes owing to their excellent catalytic activity, corrosion resistance, and cost efficiency—all critical attributes inherently linked to their operational durability. This review synthesizes recent advances in DSA durability, with a focus on synthesis methodologies, valuation criteria, failure mechanisms, and modification strategies. We first compare the advantages and limitations of current fabrication techniques, highlighting the intrinsic connection between synthesis routes and the resulting electrode durability. Special emphasis is placed on durability evaluation, where we integrate existing assessment frameworks and propose a synergistic multi-parameter diagnostic approach to elucidate DSA failure pathways. This provides a theoretical foundation for targeted durability enhancement. Furthermore, we systematically summarize prevalent failure mechanisms and corresponding engineering modifications aimed at improving longevity. By offering a multidimensional perspective on DSA durability, this review establishes a comprehensive framework intended to bridge current knowledge gaps and propose new directions for the rational design of next-generation, long-lifetime DSA.