Nanomaterials for oncotherapies targeting the hallmarks of cancer

An increasing amount of evidence has demonstrated the diverse functionalities of nanomaterials in oncotherapies such as drug delivery, imaging, and killing cancer cells. This review aims to offer an authoritative guide for the development of nanomaterial-based oncotherapies and shed light on emerging yet understudied hallmarks of cancer where nanoparticles can help improve cancer control. With this aim, three nanomaterials, i.e. those based on gold, graphene, and liposome, were selected to represent and encompass metal inorganic, nonmetal inorganic, and organic nanomaterials, and four oncotherapies, i.e. phototherapies, immunotherapies, cancer stem cell therapies, and metabolic therapies, were characterized based on the differential hallmarks of cancer that they target. We also view physical plasma as a cocktail of reactive species and carrier of nanomaterials and focus on its roles in targeting the hallmarks of cancer provided with its unique traits and ability to selectively induce epigenetic and genetic modulations in cancer cells that halt tumor initiation and progression. This review provides a clear understanding of how the physico-chemical features of particles at the nanoscale contribute alone or create synergistic effects with current treatment modalities in combating each of the hallmarks of cancer that ultimately leads to desired therapeutic outcomes and shapes the toolbox for cancer control.